By Viscount Tarrach Alfson, KSCA

In this series of papers, I hope to provide a good description and of the things a wealthy warrior of the 7^th century might be buried with. I hope to convince you with the evidence presented below that the 7^th century was a magnificent and glorious era that is well worth researching and re-creating.

The primary sources of the information I will present come from a series of excellent grave finds from Valsgard and Vendal Sweden, and the contemporary graves from Sutton Hoo and Taplow Bucks, and other "princely graves" from England and the continent. I have broken this paper up into various topics as there is an exceptional volume of data on each, and I wish to cover it in some detail. As I am focusing on warrior graves, I will begin with a description of the weapons. In later sections I will cover armor, clothing, jewelry, articles of leisure (game pieces and musical instruments), vessels for eating drinking and cooking (as well as a description of likely food stuffs), and finally boxes, buckets and hanging bowls.

The 7^th century marked a great time in northern European history. This was the time of great Saxon Kings including the likes of Penda of Mercia, Edwin of Northumbria, and Readwald of East Anglia, all of whom held the title of Bretwalda (High King) at some point during the early 7^th century [13]. This obviously made for an interesting 50 years as they all competed with each other for the title. The 7^th century also marked the end of the pagan era for northern Europe [13]. Consequently, very few rich graves from later times are known (notable exceptions include the ship burial at Osberg). Evidence from these graves indicates that aristocrats from northern Europe were acquainted with each other and with the rest of the known world from the far and Middle East and Byzantium [6]. Thus, trade must have flourished (at least between the wealthy) during this time.

Swords: The mere presence of a sword in a grave is enough to mark the grave as rich [10, 14]. Even relatively plain swords were apparently very expensive items reserved for the upper middle class. The "princely graves" are marked by the presence of swords with hilts, scabbards and fittings that are richly decorated with gold, garnets, and ivory. All of the princely swords have blades that are pattern-welded [8]. For an excellent discussion of the construction and metallurgy that went into these pattern-welded swords, see the book by Davidson and the book by Tylecote and Gilmour, and the paper by Anstee and Biek. Briefly, pattern welding is a process by which small bundles of iron rods are forge welded together. These bundles are then twisted either along the entire length or at regular intervals and then forged square. Several of these twisted and squared rods are then forge-welded to each other to form the body of the blade (see Figure 1a). Simply welding together several twisted rods, so the pattern was duplicated on each face of the blade could make the body of the sword. However, some notable swords such as the one found at Sutton Hoo had a body made of 8 such rods (four making up each face of the blade) [5,8] (see Figure 1b). On occasion, these twisted rods were welded to an iron core as well. Starting around the 7^th century, swords can be found with a rod of higher carbon content (steel) forge welded all the way around the body of the blade to serve as an edge [20]. This final composite billet was then forged to shape.

There is a modern misconception that pattern welding requires laminating steels of different carbon content to get a pattern, but the archaeological and experimental evidence argues against this [1,20]. Most pattern-welded blades are made completely from iron (with little or no carbon), and experiments by Anstee and Biek have demonstrated that perfectly visible patterns can be

achieved by pattern welding homogeneous wrought iron [1,8]. It has been observed that the pattern is the result of impurities (mostly phosphorous) that cause different "graininess" (granulation of a form of iron known as pearlite) of the iron which results in bright or dull patterns following etching [20]. Also, high arsenic content in the iron can result in a hard bright alloy that follows the weld lines. This results in a thin bright line that is more resistant to etching by the ferrous salts that were likely used in the production of the blades [8,20]. The lengths of the blades ranged from 34 to 39 inches, and average about 35 inches[16]. The tips were blunt ended (spatha type),and not suitable for thrusting [16,8] (see figure 2).

The hilt was comprised of a short quillion, handle, and "cocked hat" pommel often with a ring or ring like structure decorating the pommel (see figure 3). The quillion was just slightly wider than the blade itself and often built from bone or ivory sandwiched between two metal plates (usually gilt bronze). The handle was often made of wood, bone or ivory, and was usually wider at the blade end and tapered to the pommel [12,15]. The pommel was also often constructed from bone or ivory sandwiched between a metal bottom plate and a decorated plate cap [2,3,8, 12,15,16]. The plate cap was often decorated with gold and garnet cloisonné which is very characteristic of 7th century decorative metal work (see figure 4). The cap plate also was likely to be adorned with a ring or ring-like structure that may have signified leadership of the sword's owner [8,12]. It is interesting to note that the vast majority of true rings (as opposed to false ring-like structures) are found on swords from Kent (8). There are no true rings on any of the swords from the rich graves of Valsgard or Vendal [2,3,5].

One other common feature of swords from "princely graves" is the presence of a bead (examples in glass, amber, meerschaum and gold/garnet composites) in the vicinity of the sword hilt [5,8] (see figure 5). It is not known if these beads served any functional purpose (such as decoration for a peace bonding cord) or if they were talismans of some sort [5,8]. The scabbards for

the swords appear to have been made from wood, covered in leather and often lined with wool [2,3,5]. In the case of the two swords found in the Valsgard 6 burial, there appears to be some decorative carving on the leather covering the scabbard. However, on one of the swords the decoration may be the result of impressions from metal foils that were part of the suspension harness. Most of the richer graves had both a decorated chape and mouth [2,3,5,8,14]. In the case of the Sutton Hoo sword, the mouth of the scabbard was decorated with gold and garnet cloisonné [5].

Most of the scabbards had some means of fastening the sword to a baldric. Usually, the fastening mechanism consisted of a long "D" shaped loop of wood, bone, or ivory that the baldric strap would pass through [5,8]. Other mechanisms included the mounting buttons (often highly decorated) which would be used to secure the scabbard to the baldric [5,8]. Both methods of fastening can be seen on figures depicted on 7th century helmet plaques (see figure 6). However, at least one of the swords from Valsgard 6 and the sword from Sutton Hoo were likely to have been suspended from a belt rather than a baldric. One additional feature, that is unique to the Sutton Hoo scabbard is a small decorated ivory strip that was fitted between the two buttons for fastening the scabbard to the baldric [5]. This was originally thought to be part of the mechanism for attaching the scabbard to the baldric [5], however recent analysis of this indicates that it most likely served as a sheath for a small knife (analogous to the eating knives often found on oriental sword scabbards) [7].

Figure 6: Graphic representation of figures from helmet plaques showing methods for suspending scabbards from baldrics (b) and graphic representations of methods for suspending scabbards from belts (a,c). (Bruce-Mitford, 1978).

Spears and Angons: Spears are perhaps the most common weapons found in warrior graves of the 7^th century (for rich and poor alike). Princely graves often contained several spears. Spears generally had narrow leaf shaped blades that ranged from 3 to well over 12 inches in length (not including the socket) (see figure 7). Spear blades could be either pattern welded or not, and were often decorated with inlaid silver wire [9]. Patterns for the decorations included simple bands

and chevron motifs (see figure 8). The sockets of the spears could either wrap around the shaft (split socket) or be welded shut (welded socket). Occasionally , a separate "wing" or rod with knobs on the end was fitted through the socket on the same plane as the blade. However, there appears to

be a straight cross bar welded to the base of the spear on several of the spears from Sutton Hoo [5]. Similar spears can be seen carried by figures on helmet plaques of the 7^th century (see figure 9). It

is of interest to note that the figures depicted on this particular plaque appear to have straps attached to their spears. It is possible that these may have been used to prevent them from being pulled from the users hands (after sticking into shields or being grabbed by an opponent) or otherwise dropped during battle. The most common wood for spear shafts seemed to be ash, however, spear shafts of oak, maple, and other woods have been found. Spears ranged from 5 to 7.5 feet in length [5,19]. There is evidence that the spear shafts were decorated by carving [12]. Also, most high quality spears from princely graves were fitted with a butt cap as well [2,3,5].

Angons (throwing javelins) were more commonly associated with princely graves than in poorer grave finds. These were distinguishable from spears by the fact that they were often tipped with a small barbed blade (see figure 10). Also, the angons had longer, narrower sockets. The length of the angons was usually 5 foot long or shorter. Angons lacked the decorative attention lavished on the spears as all examples were simply forged of undecorated iron. However, there is evidence that some of the shafts on the angons from Valsgard 6 were decorated with red paint [3].

Saxes, Axes and Other Weapons: Small hatchets and saxes are also commonly found in rich 7^th century warrior's graves [2,3,5,12,16]. Most of the axes are Frankish style throwing hatchets which are made of a narrow iron blade welded in between the ends of a iron band folded around to fit over the haft [20] (see figure 11). However, the axe in the Sutton Hoo grave had a distinctly modem shape more like that of a tomahawk with a hammer end and was on a relatively long shaft (23 inches) [6].

Saxes are large knives with a distinctively shaped blade in which the back curves or angles down to the edge at the tip (see figure 12). Oakeshott states that saxes were not pattern welded, but that they were occasionally decorated with inlaid pattern welded strips [16]. However, there are several examples of pattern welded saxes from the 7^th century [12,20]. Other decorative motifs on

the saxes include silver wire inlays that on some later versions included runes [12,16]. Sax blades ranged in size from 3 inches to 17 inches (with very long saxes (20+ inches) becoming popular after the 7^th century) [2,3,12,16]. Most of the handles on saxes were of wood, bone or antler [12]. Some saxes have been found with small cocked hat pommels, but most appear to have lacked pommel caps.

Saxes appeared to be carried in leather sheaths that were often decorated with metal studs and could have elaborate metal fittings of gilt bronze [2,3]. Again, in the case of one of the saxes from Valsgard 6, the sax sheath was of wood covered in leather, with some decorative motifs carved into the sheath and decorative gilt bronze plaques mounted on the sheath as well [3]. I would speculate that it is likely that most leather sheaths were tooled and decorated. There is an 8-9' century tooled leather sheath that was found in Gotland [11,12]. This sheath has decorative motifs that might be more suggestive of an earlier date. Also, the only surviving bit of 7^th century leatherwork on the Stonyhurst bible cover shows evidence of painting and dying as well [17]. Such tooling was likely to take the form of type 11 decorative motifs common in 7^th century art that I will discuss later [21]. Interestingly, most of the depiction’s of warriors carrying saxes show the sax carried sharp edge up with the pommel towards the right [12].

Smaller knives of shapes and sizes similar to modern sheath knives were also common in 7^th century graves of both the rich and poor [10,12]. There is some suggestion that the hone-stone scepter found in the Sutton Hoo grave was a weapon as well [17]. Analogies have been drawn to a hone-stone wielding giant who battled Thor. Finally, there was a whole sheaf of arrows found in the Valsgard 8 burial [3]. The arrowheads were iron, with a narrow diamond shape and about 3 inches long (including the sockets) (see figure 13).

References:

1) Anstee J.W. and L. Biek (1961) A study in Pattern-welding. Medieval Archaeology 5: 71-107

2) Arwidsson G. 1942 Die Graberfunde von Valsgard I Valsgard 6 Acta Musei Antiquitatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis IV

3) Arwidsson G. 1954 Die Graberfunde von Valsgard 11 Vaisgard 8 Acta Musei Antiquitatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis IV

4) Arwidsson G. 1974 Die Graberfunde von Vaisgard III Valsgard 7 Acta Musei Antiquitatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis IV

5) Bruce-Mitford (1978) The Sutton Hoo Ship Burial 11: Arms Armour and Regali-a,

6) Bruce-Mitford (1975-83) The Sutton Hoo Ship Burial III: Late Roman and Byzantine Silver, etc.

7) Bruce-Mitford (1982) The Sutton Hoo Helmet-Reconstruction and the Design of the Royal Harness and Sword-Belt: A Reply to Hofrat Dr. Ortwin Gamber with some Additional Comments on the Sutton Hoo Arms and Armour. Journal of the Arms and Armour Society 10.

8) Davidson, H. (1962). The Sword in Anglo-Saxon England. Boydell Press, Suffolk, Eng.

9) Evison V.I. (19 ) Early Anglo-Saxon inlaid metalwork. The Antiquaries Journal

10) Geake H (1988) Use of grave goods in the conversion period England, c6OO-c850. British Archaeological Reports, British Series 9261, Oxford

11) Hall RA (I 978) Viking Age York and the North. Research Report # 27, The Council for British Archeology.

12) Hawkes S.C. (1989) Weapons and Warfare in Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford Committee for Archaeology Monograph 2 1. Oxford

13) Hodgkin, R. H. (1952). A History of the Anglo-Saxons. Oxford University Press.

14) Kennett D. H. (1971) Graves with swords at Little Wilbraham and Linton Heath. Proc. Camb. Ant. Soc. Vol. 63: 9-26

15) MacGregor (1985) Bone, Antler, Ivory and Hom: The technology of skeletal materials since the Roman period. Totowa: Barnes and Noble.

16) Oakeshott, E, (1960). The Archaeology of Weapons. Barnes and Noble Books, USA. 17) Powel R (1956) The Stoneyhurst Gospel: The binding. in ed. Battiscombe The Relics of Saint Cuthbert. The University Press, Oxford

18) Simpson J. (1979) "The King's Whetstone." Antiquity 53.

19) Swanton M.J. (1974) A corpus of pagan Anglo Saxon spear types. British Archaeological Reports 47. Oxford, England

20) Tylecote, R.F and Gilmour B (1986) The metallography of early ferrous edged tools and edged weapons (BAR, British Series #155) Oxford

21) Wilson, David. M. 1984. Anglo-Saxon Art, From the Seventh Century to the Norman Conquest. The Overlook Press, Woodstock, New York.

*) Lamm J.P. and Nordstrom H.A eds. (1983) Vendel Period Studies. The Museum of National Antiquities, Stockholm Studies #2. (Referenced only in figure 9)