Clothing of a Wealthy 7th Century Northern European Warrior

 

By Tarrach Alfson

 

Clothing in the 7th century was both distinctive and elaborate.  In general, clothing consisted of a tunic and under tunic, trousers, cloaks, coats, hats and shoes.  There also appears to be a reasonably strong Byzantine influence on clothing.  Evidence for clothing comes mostly from early descriptions of dress by Roman historians, contemporary depictions of individuals and by fragments of fabric (or the impressions there of) on broaches, placement of pins and broaches and remains of trim from archaeological finds. 

 

General discussion of fabric, color, seams and decoration: Wool and linen appear to be the predominant material for making garments (Hald, 1980; Jorgenson, 1992). However, silk was imported and is occasionally found in very rich graves (Bunt, 1967; Owen Crocker, 1986).  It was noted that silk appeared to be more common on the continent in Frankish and Germanic graves than it was is Scandinavian or Anglo-Saxon graves (Jorgenson, 1992). However, there is a passage by a 7th century Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastic that describes nuns weaving with many colors of silk, and there are brocaded silk garments purported to have been worn by St. Cuthbert which date to 668 AD (Leggett, 1949).  It is arguable that cotton may have been known and used as well based on trade routes and roman accounts (Wild, 1988). Most wool and linen that has been found was likely to have been woven on a warp weighted or two beam loom(Hoffman, 1974; Hald, 1980; Jorgenson, 1992) (Figure 1). 

 

 


Figure 1: Drawing of a warp weighted loom (from Wilson, 1979 copied from Kissel,1918)

 

Weaving technique on warp weighted looms results in several peculiarities in fabric weave and garment design.  Warp weighted looms are very amenable to weaving very wide fabric.  There is evidence that such looms could be used to produce fabric more than 6 feet wide (Hoffman, 1974). This means that there was no need to use smaller narrower pieces to fit garments together.  However, it should be noted that although it would have been very easy to make one-piece SCA type T-tunic out of such a wide piece of fabric, this does not appear to have been done.  Most extant garments have separate sleeves, and flaring of tunics was done by adding separate gores. Evidence for separate sleeves and gores come from stone carvings which clearly depict inset triangles of fabric and from several extant tunics of the 7th and 8th century.

 

The most likely reason for this is that such additions make it easier to conserve fabric.  Warp weighted looms are designed to allowing easy weaving of balanced weaves such as tabby and 2/2 twills.  However, it is difficult (but not impossible) to weave unbalanced weaves such as 2/1 twills (Hoffman, 1974). There are a number of 2/1 twills that have been found in 7th century contexts, but there is disagreement as to whether they were locally produced or imported (Hald, 1980).  Tablet woven staring borders were also common and thus would have been incorporated into clothing design. Examples of such staring borders can be seen in extant examples like the Thorsberg mantle (Hoffman, 1974; Hald, 1980). 

 

Exceptionally fine fabric was produced in Northern Europe in the 7th century. Worsted wool twills with thread counts of 5 and 63 per centimeter warp and 5-32 weft have been found (Jorgenson, 1992; Wild, 1970).  The extreme is far finer than suit grade wool available today.  However although such masterful work was clearly available, the majority of the fabric appears to have had thread counts that of about 20/15 (warp/weft) per centimeter (which is still pretty fine) (Jorgenson, 1992).   It should be noted that wools were usually woven in twills and a majority of the tabby weaves were of linen (Jorgenson, 1992)

 

Evidence exists that many fabrics of wealthy Northern European warriors were very brightly colored (Bruce-Mitford; 1975, Hald, 1980; Owen-Crocker, 1986; Weigle, 1974).  A variety of natural dyes were used in the 7th century. Woad was used for blues, madder for reds and oranges, weld, saffron and onion for yellows, golds and browns, shell fish for purples (Grierson, 1989; Leggett, 1944).  There is evidence that lichen dyes were used as early as the 7th century for various colors including purple, red and green (Leggett, 1944).  Also, there is evidence of over-dying being used to produce greens (Bruce-Mitford; 1975).  Blacks were made with woad and iron and bleached white linen was considered a luxury fabric (Owen-Crocker, 1986).

 

Sewing together of garments was done using several seam construction techniques (Figure 2).  I am unaware of any unfinished seams from 7th century garments however, there is mention of unfinished seams by Wild (Wild, 1988).  Among the more common techniques are flat-felled and folded seams. Seams could be sewn together using running stitch, tent stitch, herringbone stitch, whip stitch, modified whip stitch and base-ball stitch (Wild, 1970; Wild, 1988).  Also, blanket stitch and hem stitch were used on hems (Wild, 1988).  Blanket stitch was also used on flat-felled seams of the sleeves of the Viborg shirt (Jorgenson, ). Many seams were sewn with thread of contrasting color and appear to be decorative (Wild, 1970; Hald, 1980).  Since all edges were likely finished, it was not uncommon to have the finished edge of seam and hems on the outside of the garments to better display the decorative stitch (Wild, 1970).

 


Figure 2:  Some seam techniques as drawn by Wild, 1988.  Note: Most seams I have seen are completely finished with no raw edges visible.  For instance, in example (a), I have seen both raw edges turned under and sewn down with a running stitch and with more decorative stitches such as herring bone or blanket stitch.

 

 

There is substantial evidence to suggest that many garments were trimmed with tablet woven bands.  Finds of gold strips that were clearly used to brocade tablet woven bands are frequent in rich 7th century graves (Hansen, 1990; Collingwood, 1982; Bruce-Mitford; 1975).  Also there is evidence that tapestry woven borders and trims were used for decorations as well (Arwidsson, 1942&1954).  Finally, a number of sewing boxes from 7th century contexts contain brightly colored silk which may have been used for embroidery (Owen-Crocker, 1986).  In fact, several embroidered bits of fabric from 7th century contexts have been found and there is mention of the fine embroidery done by the Anglo-Saxon women in roman accounts (Wild, 1970; Owen-Crocker, 1986; Jones, 1969).  Design motifs for such embroidery would likely have been done in the “type II” interlaced animal and plant motifs common to other anglo-saxon art work during the 7th century (Speake, 1980). Finally, there is evidence for use of naalbinding and sprang techniques for garment construction both before and after the 7th century (Hald, 1980; Collingwood, 1974; Kliot, 1974).

 

Tunics:  Tunics appear to be nearly ubiquitous as the primary body covering of 7th century warriors.  Nearly every description, depiction and bits of archaeological evidence of individuals indicates that they wore simple tunics (usually of wool) that covered the torso to about knee level. These were apparently worn over linen under-tunics (Owen-Crocker, 1986).    Depictions of individuals on helmet plaques from Vendel and Valsgard show individuals wearing loose fitting tunics that either have short sleeves with a narrow long sleeved undertunic or had long sleeves with trim at both the wrist and the upper arm (Figure 3).  There is little archaeological evidence to suggest the most common construction techniques of 7th century tunics.

 

 


Figure 3: Die for helmet plaque showing individual wearing loose tunic with short sleeves or tunic with long sleeves but with trim at both wrists and bicepts (Grant, 1981).

 

However, shirts found in 6th century contexts (Thorsberg Moss Shirt) and 10th century contexts (Viborg Shirt) show a basic rectangular design with a split on both sides from hem to waist (Figure 4a and b).  Nearly all extant tunics had attached sleeves (separate pieces that were sewn on) that taper sharply to the wrists.  The so called “Charlemain’s Tunic” (8th century context) has a flaring bottom with gores. Contemporary descriptions of individuals suggest that tunics were brightly colored and decorated (Owen-Crocker, 1989).  Depictions of tunics also show boat-cut, round, key-hole and square neck lines.  Tunics are shown with trim at the sleeve hems and around the skirt just above the hem. Depiction of individuals on helmet plaques suggest that trim of simple repeating geometric designs were common (Figure 3).  Such designs could easily have been done using tablet or tapestry weaving. 

 

 


                                          A                                                                  B

 

 

Figure 4: Line drawing of Viborg Shirt (10th century) and of the Thorsberg Shirt (6th century) (Nørbo and Kragelund, in Fentz, 1992 and Owen-Crocker, 1986 respectively).

 

 

Pants: Evidence for pants comes primarily from depictions and the two 6th century finds from Thorsberg Moss (Hald, 1980).  Pants appeared to be generally tight fitting and belted at the waist. Both extant pants from Thorsberg Moss were tight fitting.  One of the pants had belt loops and both had attached foot coverings not unlike modern “booty” pajamas for children.  There is one additional depiction of these “booty pants” from an 8th century manuscript (Hald, 1980).  Evidence of this type of trousers before and after the 7th century suggests that this design was fairly long lived.  Depiction of individuals from helmet plaques and stone carvings also suggests the wearing of pants that fit tightly (at least below the knee) (Figure 6).  However, looser fitting trousers are depicted on figures from the Frank’s casket (Figure 7).  Also, loose fitting fur trousers appear to be worn by the individual depicted on the embossed plaque of the helmet from Vendel X (Figure 6).  It is however possible that the tight fit at the calves may have been due to leg wraps which appear to have been common in the 7th century (Owen-Crocker, 1986).  These leg wraps could be either strips of wool that wrapped up and then back down the leg (as is done with Ace bandages), leather cross gartering with buckles at the top or bottom, or leather gators with buckles or ties at the back of the leg (Owen-Crocker, 1986).

 

 


                        A                                             B                                             C

 

Figure 6:  Depictions of helmet plaques showing pants fitting tightly to the lower legs and loose fitting trousers of fur from 7th century helmet plaques. (Lamm and Nordstom, 1983; Stolpe and Arne, 1927; Grant, 1981)

 


 

 

Figure 7: Loose fitting trosers depicted on the Franks Casket (Owen-Corcker, 1986)

 

Shoes and boots: There are a number of shoe remains from Sutton Hoo as well as shoe buckles from continental grave finds which allow a reasonable prediction of the shape and form of shoes worn by wealthy 7th century warriors.  Judging from the location of very ornate and fairly large buckles (Figure 8) towards the outside of the feet in many continental 7th century graves, it appears that many shoes had a flap or wide strap that went over the top of the foot and attached near the inside heel.

 

 


                                         A                                                                       B

 

Figure 8:  Two separate sets of shoe buckles found in 7th century context.  A) buckles showing common location on feet (Bruce-Mitford, 1975). B) large ornate iron buckles with inlaid silver found on feet of 7th century Germanic grave. Note, overall length of buckle and counter-plate is a little over 11 cm! (Pescheck, )

 

Also, the extant remains of the shoes from Sutton Hoo indicate a turn-style construction was used in their making (Bruce-Mitford, 1975).  These finds combined with that of several 8th century shoes from Oseberg (Figure 9) indicate that a common shoe may have been of a turn-shoe build with an overlapping flap that connected to the inside heel, and could be designed as a slipper or a short boot.


Figure 9: Construction of 8th century shoe from Osberg (Carlson, 1999).

 

 

The nearly complete sole from one of the Sutton Hoo shoes indicates that it was built to be fairly wide in the middle and had rounded (or only slightly pointed) toe (Bruce-Mitford, 1975). There are no remains of stitching material on the Sutton Hoo shoes which suggests they were stitched with linen thread rather than wool or leather which would have had survived better. Stitching on the Sutton Hoo shoes was quite fine (with stitch lengths of 2-3 mm). Also, the Sutton Hoo shoes were of delicate construction with soles only as thick as the uppers.  It should be noted that there are some interesting and advanced construction techniques used on the Sutton Hoo shoes. At least one pair of shoes from Sutton Hoo was clearly constructed with a rand to protect the sewing that connected the sole to the upper.  Also, there is a good possibility that at least one of the Sutton Hoo shoes was constructed with an arch support made of hazel wood.  Finally, the Sutton Hoo shoes appear to have been lined or had an inner sole (possibly to cover or secure the arch support in place).  There is some indication that shoes were decorated with applique or embroidery on the toes (Bruce-Mitford, 1975).  Also, there is mention of guilding on shoes by a contemporary writer (Owen-Crocker, 1986).  The fact that leather dyes were known and used in the 7th century (Powel, 1956), and the propensity for color as seen in art and fabric remains makes it likely that shoes were also dyed.  Personal experience and experimentation has indicated that this shoe design is much more comfortable if worn with an inserted felted wool liner (or heavy socks).  There is limited archaeological evidence for lining shoes with wool (Hald, 1980).  Also, there is pictorial evidence that shows what appear to be taller liners extending over the ankle of shoes which may further argue for such additions in period (Figure 10).  Booty type pants may have added to the comfort of wearing these shoes if socks or liners were not used.

 

 


           

Figure 10: Depiction of shoes from a 9th century ivory carving.  Some shoes appear to have soft fabric extending above the top of the boot (right hand most figure).  (Burce-Mitford, 1975).

 

 

Coats and cloaks: There are numerous depictions of caftan like coats being worn by 7th century warriors.  This type of garment appears to be designed like a bathrobe or karate gee and was closed by overlapping the front flaps and belting at the waist.  Most of these are from embossed plaques that decorate several Vendel type helmets (Figure 6B). However, there is also at least one other picture from a 7th century ivory carving (the Halberstadt, diptych) that clearly shows an individual wearing a similar garment (Wilson, 1984).  There is archaeological evidence for the existence of such coats as well.  There is a 7th century grave of a minstrel from Cologne that contained the remains of a brocaded tablet woven trim which would be consistent with a garment of similar design (Figure 11) (Owen-Crocker. 1986).

 


 

 

Figure 11: Minstrel’s grave showing brocaded band around neck, and wide cuffed leather gloves.  (Owen-Crocker, 1986).

 

 

Judging from depictions on helmet plaques, these coats appear to have been made from fabric or fur and were trimmed with different textures of fur or tablet weaving around all hems.  The coat shown on the ivory carving appears to be made of lighter material.  In addition to the caftan like coats, there is mention of a short jacket or waist coat made of otter skin in the description of Charlemagne by a contemporary writer (Owen-Crocker. 1986).  However no depictions of such a coat exists (to my knowledge).

 

Cloaks were also commonly worn in the 7th century.  Cloaks were apparently long rectangular pieces of fabric that could easily double as a blanket.  Evidence for this comes from letters of Charlemagne writing in the 8th century to the Anglo-Saxon merchants in which he requests the more versatile old fashion long cloaks rather than the shorter ones which were becoming more fashionable during his time (Owen-Crocker. 1986). Evidence from pins and broaches suggests that such cloaks were usually pinned at the right shoulder (Owen-Crocker, 1986; Hald, 1980).  Cloaks in the 7th century could be made of fur or wool (Owen-Crocker. 1986).  There is evidence that some wool cloaks may have been woven with a pile technique so that tufts of wool were pulled to the outside of the fabric giving it a shaggy appearance (Owen-Crocker. 1986, Bruce-Mitford, 1975).  

 

Hats and Hoods:  With the exception of a few Scottish stone carvings (figure 12), there is very little pictorial evidence from the 7th century for hats or hoods being worn by warriors.  However, such garments were apparently known and used (Owen-Crocker. 1986).  Evidence for their existence comes primarily from two finds.  One is of the Orkney Hood, which is an excellent example of a separate hood found in a 7th century context in Northern Scotland (Figure 13). The other is the leather cap worn by the man found in a bog near Tolund Germany (Figure 14). 

 


 

Figure 12: Drawing of warrior wearing a hood from a pictish stone. (Laing and Laing, 1994)

 


Figure 13: Reconstruction of the Orkney hood.  (Foster, 1996).

 


 

Figure 14: Late iron age cap from Tolund Germany. (Owen-Crocker, 1986)

 

 

Gloves:  There is evidence for finger gloves and mittens being used by wealthy 7th century men. The grave of a 7th century bard has the remains of appliqued finger gloves with a high wide cuff (Figure 11).  Also, it has been suggested that one of the figures on a 7th century helmet plaque is shown wearing gloves (Figure 15).  There are Anglo-Saxon words for gloves and mittens suggesting that such items were used in the 7th century (Owen-Crocker, 1986).  Finally, there are finds of mittens from the iron age and later contexts as well (Figure 16).  These mittens were produced by a nalbinding technique. 

 

 


Figure 15: Drawing of helmet plaque showing trampled warrior wearing what has been interpreted as gloves. (Cederloef, 1955)

 

 


 

Figure 16: Naalbinding and felt mittens from late iron age through 13th century.  (Hald, 1980).

 

 

Belts, Buckles, Broaches and Clasps: Knowledge that various clothing articles existed does not always indicate how the clothing was worn. However, the placement of belts, buckles and broaches and clasps can give additional insight.  Common buckles (very similar to modern buckles) are often found near the waist, ankles, knees, and chest of individuals from rich 7th century graves.  Larger “axe head” buckles (figure 17) (commonly found with matching counter plates) are usually found near the waist.  Given that there is pictorial and physical evidence of belts for holding up pants as well as evidence for belts on coats, it is uncertain how such buckles (and their attached belts) would have been used.  However, the ornate appearance and relatively heavy construction makes it more likely that such buckles would have been worn on the outer-most layer of clothing (ie. tunics or coats). Buckles are also found in association with sword harnesses such as the sword belt and baldric (?) found at Sutton Hoo (Bruce Mitford, 1978). Buckles found near the knees are usually taken as evidence for leg wraps or cross-gartering. Shoe buckles found near the ankles have already been discussed. 


           


 

Figure 17: Drawings of various 7th century buckles and a photo of a 7th century Frankish axe head buckle and counter plate set.  (Geake, 1988; MacGregor, 1989).

 

 

Broaches (usually circular or dragonesque in shape) are most often found near the left shoulder in 7th century inhumations (Figure 18).  It is suspected that such broaches were used primarily as cloak clasps (Owen-Crocker, 1986).  Although it is beyond the scope of this paper, many rich female graves have cruciform broaches (usually in matched sets) on both shoulders.  Cruciform broaches are quite rare in male inhumations. 

           


Figure 18: Set of Dragonesque broaches with inlaid garnet eyes.  (MacGregor, 1989).

 

Wrist clasps are also occasionally found in rich warrior graves of the 7th century (Figure 19).  Wrist clasps provide evidence that sleeves fit very tightly at the wrists.  However, there is an alternative explanation that such wrist clasps were used to create movable trim.  Wrist clasps, if connected to separate pieces of trim could have been used like bracelets.  This would have allowed trim to be easily moved from one garment to the next, and would have allowed easier cleaning of soiled garments/trim.

 


Figure 19: Two types of wrist clasps found in 7th century contexts. (Unknown, Bruce-Mitford, 1975).

 

 

 

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